An Analysis Of The Extended Mind Philosophy Essay

An Analysis Of The Extended Mind Philosophy Essay à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Minds like ours can (without the need for any radically new techniques, technologies, or interventions) extend into the world (Clark, 2010, p. 81). Evaluate this statement with reference to the literature on extended cognition. This essay aims to study the extended mind, without any need of completely adapting new techniques, technology, or interventions the minds like ours can launch into the world (Clark, 2010). The focus of the essay will be on internal and external representation of the mind and will evaluate the statement made by Clark (2010) with reference to other literature on extended cognition. Cognitive science believes that the mind has mental representations which are similar to computer data structures and computational procedures analogous and computational algorithms. Cognitive researchers have put forward that the mind holds mental representations as rules, images, logical proposition, and concepts (Dawson 1998). According to Norman (1988, 1993) cognition is viewed as terms of knowledge in the head and knowledge in the world. According to Clark (2010) one of the most significant current discussions in legal and moral philosophy is the extended mind, which refers to the concept between the mind and the environment, from the thesis of Clark and Chalmers (1998) active externalism or Hypothesis of Extended Cognition (HEC). The extended mind commences with the inquiry of where does the mind stop and the rest of the world begin? in respond to the question Clark and Chalmers (1998) present an alternative view with Hypothesis of Extended cognition (HEC). This is to be distinguished from the more traditional externalism meaning from the writing of (Putnam, 1975 Burge, 1986). Clark is asking for people to visualize that individuals could rotate images of geometrical shapes on a computer screen, by the use of a neural implant in their heads or by using a rotate button in the world. Clark affirmed that the implant perspective is evidently cognitive; therefore the button perspective is as well, in spite of either if they are carried out in the head or in the world (cited in Clark 2008). For this reason, it can be argued that the mind extends into the world which was Clarks belief in technology, physical objects, chips and CD-ROMs, as external memory stores that individuals can consult as needs dictate sort of coupled systems (Clark and Chalmers 1998). According to Dartnall (2007); (Schegloff, 1992, cite Alterman, 2007), Clark and Chalmers (1998) admitted that the processes in the world might be seen as individual, truly mental states-experiences, desires, emotions, beliefs, and so on might be in the mind. Nevertheless when it is performed in the head, it should also add up as cognitive when it is carried out in the world, Dartnall (2005) affirmed that the mind leaks or loops into the world. Clark and Chalmers (1998) argued that cognitive processes extend into the world when an individual uses pen and paper to solve a problem, using language to work or to solve a problem and the use of computers. Zhang and Norman (1994) draw our attention to internal representations as being intrinsic to many cognitive tasks and not just input and stimuli to the internal mind. This means that all these researchers thesis show a supportive argument toward Clark (2010) stating that the human mind can be extended into the world. Clark and Chalmers (1998) made such arguments as cognitive states being Parity argument by the things in the environment, in which they identify a number of possible objections to this argument such as the cognitive and the conscious, portability and reliability. They demonstrate two untrue characters to support their argument that the mind can extend into the world, using the example of Otto and Inga, who were both interested in art. Inga has a normal functioning brain, while Otto suffers from Alzheimers disease. They hear about an exhibition at different times and places and they both decide to go, Otto consults his notebook, which says that the museum is on 53rd street so he went to 53rd street to the museum. Whereas Inga recalls that the museum is on 53rd street and walks to the exhibition, as a result of this case Clark and Chalmers (1998) stated that the notebook plays the same role for Otto that biological memory plays for everyone else. They concluded for this reason that som e external objects execute this duty, and that some of our cognitive processes transcend the boundaries of skin and skull (Clark 2008). The HEC has been thoroughly criticized by Adams and Aizawa (2001) defenders of brainbound or organismbound approach to cognition. Clark and Chalmers, (1998) maintain their argument by pointing out to what extreme the mind extended, if someone hardly ever takes relevant action without consulting their Filofax, for instance, their cognitive system will be like that of the notebook in Ottos. Nevertheless if the individual frequently acted without consulting themselves, for example if the individual sometimes answers important questions with I do not know then the information in it counts less as part of individual belief system. Also if someone is relying on the internet is likely to fail on multiple counts, unless the individual is unusually computer reliant, facile with the technology, and trusting, but information on certain files on the individual computer may qualify (cited in Clark 2008). Dartnall, (2005) who argues for internalism and its epistemological implication that an individual can execute actions mentally that someone could typically carry out in the world. These are naturally achieved on inner analogues of external substance, which means that there is a leakage in both ways such as from world to mind, from mind to world. This parity argument has epistemological inference; if the individual can make an empirical discovery in the world using a procedure, then that procedure will also lead to empirical discovery when carried out in the head. For instance if a person walks into a room and sees a partially completed jigsaw puzzle on the table, looks at the puzzle and leaves the room. The person then mentally rotates one of the pieces and discovers where it fits into the puzzle. They have discovered something new, where the piece fits in the jigsaw puzzle, but how has the person done this? Not by straightforward empirical discovery, they did not have the direct en try to the puzzle when they solved it, or if they might have remember it when they walk into the room, because they did not know where it fitted when they were in the room and Shepard Metzler, (1971) also in support of this work also is consistent with Clark (2010) statement. A number of studies have highlighted that our mind extends into the world in support of Clark and Chalmers (1998); Clark (2010); Kosslyn (2006); Zhang and Patel (2006), (Baddeley, 1986; Smith and Jonides, 1997) (cited in Kosslyn 2006). In addition, Kosslyn argues that you are not restricted to whats in your head, but also includes things around you, including other people. Consequently, the self becomes distributed over other people who function as long term social prosthetic devices, cited in (Kosslyn 2006). Rupert (2004) developed a methodology for the hypothesis of extended cognition (HEC) which he called hypothesis of embedded cognition (HEMC), they are two divergent holds on cognitive scheme and their composition and their position in cognitive processing. HEC could more or less correspond to the viewpoint implemented by Clark (2008) those cognitive processes factually extends into the environment, while the traditional HEMC persists that cognitive organism is bound. According to the HEMC rely on cognitive processes, instead of being constituted by the external mechanism and strategy for cognition to happen without the external element being a factual part of the cognitive process. Rupert (2010) opposes Clark (2010), but does not fully reject the HEC. Thus, the HEMC has further empirical support and descriptive worth than HEC (cited in Dahlback, Stjernberg, Kristansson and Skagerlund, 2010). A recent study by Dahlback et al (2010), reviews the hypothesis of the extended mind and in order for them to support Clark and Chalmers (1998), they conducted an empirical study. They developed a definition of what cognitive processes are and how to examine cognitive systems, for instance how external memory support is actually used in elderly peoples everyday life. The participants were four elderly people with mild memory impairments and were diagnosed with Alzheimers disease, and some with a form of dementia. It was observe that one of the women kept the disposed plastic envelopes for the medicine she used and clipped it on her kitchen table. The woman stated that the envelope is a way of reminding her that a home healthcare practitioner as visited her as she will not remember. Dahlback, et al. (2010), pointed out that the plastic envelop is part of the womans memory system from an active internal process, since an already existing material artefact is put to use to improve her m emory, because they is no need to create a material artefact to improve the womans internal function any more. While Clark and Chalmers state that the mind can extend into the world through active externalism, that if process counts as cognitive when carried out in the head, then it could be also counted as cognitive when someone uses object as external memory via a notebook. Bs note were on the inside of her door, for her not to open the door for strangers, just like Otto, but Otto carries her own every were she goes. C uses a shopping list, because she forgets things all the time, while F has an appointment at podiatrist, which she has written and posted on her fridge, she then rewrites the note and the information has been mixed up. Dahlback, et al. (2010), Clark and Chalmers (1998), the imagination of Otto is not as straightforward as they may think in real life. Hence external memory support in this context is of question on how information finds its way into the external memory with participant Fs memory support functions. Dahlback et al (2010) concluded that extended mind hypothesis of Clark and Chalmers had been argued in isolation, for instance the hypothesis was not looked at in a wider theoretical framework surrounding all variety of cognition. In addition, the empirical debate has been slight be being limited to a few paradigms. Consequently, they supported Clark and Chalmers, but proposed alternative theoretical framework that Activity Theory could be used to illuminate some problems brought up in the debate. Activity Theory cognition is first and foremost organism centered and biologically evident in examples alternative from Clark and Chalmers, (1998). Hutchins (1995) argued that cognition is culturally and socially processed. The Activity Theory which is derived from Vygotskys (1978) cultural historical psychology, that the human mind is essentially associated to the interaction linked to the world and the human being. According to the Activity Theory, culture may not only be external which might have power over the human mind, instead is an underlying producing power that is an element of the extraordinarily manufacture of the mind. This finding is consistent with Clarks (2010) thesis, even though they have a different idea. Vygotsky (1978) is also debated Clark and Chalmers (1998) thesis, stating that the human mind is social in nature; that people are shaped by their language, how they are construed and by their culture as well, also that human beings live in a social and communal w orld. Although they has been critics such as Adams and Aizawa (2001) claiming that there might be a crucial difference between a real extended cognitive process where some external artifact in the world is element of an actual cognitive process and process that permit some process. They ask Clark a question: Why did the pencil think that 2 + 2 =4? And Clark answered because it was coupled with a mathematician. According to Adams and Aizawa (2010) in respond to Clarks answer they stated that, there were problems with Clarks extended mind hypothesis. They stated that Clark had no right explanation of the cognitive and the coupling constitution fallacy, so they made a theory mark of the cognitive, which may well prove that cognitive processes in fact are extended. Adams and Aizawa (2001) illustrated some artifact pencil and paper, in which they explain when using pen and paper and at the same time as carry out arithmetic which is rather difficult, the individual may not be able to work out the problem when using just their head and that the person needs to pass information onto the paper. They state that the paper and pen merely permitted a little cognitive process or else may be unattainable. While Menary (2010) feels that the mark of the cognitive is too limited. Adams and Aizawa (2010) propose an explanatory work, that cognition is constituted through underlying processes that involve non-derived content. They offer this in two ways, chemistry, and physics and by psychological laws. They stated that particular psychophysical laws, like Webers law, and psychological laws central memory formation and recall. Consequently they projected that the weight of empirical evidence supports the view that, since an object is of conditional empirical fact, that there are some processes that are identifiable cognitive, which happened in the brain and cannot cross from the brain into the external world. Clark (2010) argued that Adams and Aizawas (2010) argument is not strong enough, mark of the cognition, that cognition should be noticed not by its causes, but by its effects, which means Clark is arguing for a different cognition science which is the coupling constitution fallacy. Nevertheless Adams and Aizawa (2010) believe that Clark cannot come understand the view they had that cognition is a fundamental processing concerning non-derived content. As a result their work did not provoke Clark to address the problem of the most widespread problems with extracranial and transcranial theories of tool use. According to them, Clark did not offer a response to the coupling constitution fallacy and he gives a hint at what he thinks distinguishes the cognitive from the non cognitive. In conclusion this essay has given an account of and the reasons for the widespread extended mind debate and the statement made by (Clark 2010, p. 18) that minds like ours can (without the need for any radically new techniques, technologies, or interventions) extend into the world. It is possible to state that external representation has shown an option to the classical thesis of Clark (2010) view of all cognition taking place in the head. In addition, how it can be practical to be of assistance in real-world problem solving and arrangement of tasks, hence it provides insight into the association between human internal and external worlds and the nature of the mind itself. Furthermore other researches such as Clark, 2003, Clark and Chalmers, 1998, Dennett, 1996, Donald, 1991, Hutchins 1995 (cited in Dartnall, 2005) state that, cognitive processes extend into the world when individuals use pen and paper to work something out or the use of a computer. These findings suggest that the statement made by Clark with reference to other literature on extended cognition has brought new areas to be looked into like the need of technologies. Finally, a number of important limitations need to be considered, first Adams and Aizawa (2010) (cited in Clark 2008) which were the ones who attempted to argue what was wrong with the extended mind hypothesis and Clark stated that they fall short to successfully undermine the argument for the extended mind, because it seems that everyone agreed with Clark, but also bring alternative explanations. However, Adams and Aizawa (2010) argued that Clark was not able to address their theory of the mark of the cognitive, on the other hand Clark and Chalmers attempt to tackle the pervasive coupling constitution fallacy and set out a reasonable theory of what differentiates the cognitive from the non cognitive. The statement made by Clark and Chalmers (1998) has thrown up many questions in need of further investigation with empirical evidence to support the statement.

Poetry Comparison - Sonnet and In time of war. :: English Literature

Poetry Comparison - Sonnet and In time of war. In the poem "Sonnet" Millay is still in love with someone because it is told to us in the last two lines of the poem. "I only know that summer sang in me" which tells us that she feels full of summer, i.e., nice things, when she is in love. " A little while, that in me sings no more" tells us that she is now sad to have lost the love which she once knew. I think she has mixed feelings about being in love with a person or the idea of just being in love. She feels that being in love is both painful and confusing as she talks about this in her poem. I think that it is possible to love more than one person in your lifetime, but only one at a time. There will however, I believe that there will be only one true love in your life. Millay compares herself to a tree in winter: "thus in the winter stands the lonely tree" to explore the theme of love. She feels pain, Millay explains the feeling of being in love "summer singing within her" this is appropriate as is exploring her true feelings and affections about the fact of being in love. Millay uses long lines to create the mood of love, for example, "what lips my lips have kissed, and where, and why." "I only know that summer sang in me." "a little while, that in me sings no more." These word show how much she loved the person, that she felt lifted and bright and that she is afraid that the feeling is now gone and will not come back. In the poem "In Time Of War" the language in the poem indicate that Thanet is in love with her lover more than her country. She loves him so much as he understands her and she feels as though their souls are joined. There are similarities between this poem and Millay's "Sonnet". Both Millay and Thanet have similar views on love, in that they are both intrigued by the idea of love and have loved ones who have gone away, not knowing if they will return safely. Thanet evokes the familiar image of men, soldiers, marching away to war "when the deep drums awake- go forth: do gloriously for my dear sake." I think that the use of the word "awake" could have numerous meanings here, it could be a representation of the realisation of what war really is to the soldiers and the sound of guns in battle, a

Solving Problems And Making Decisions

The Health Board was established in 2009 following the integration of the two former NHS Trusts and two Local Authorities’. The Vision was to ‘Create Altogether Healthier Communities’ by aiming to prevent ill health, protect good health and promote better health’ through working with partners to provide services as locally as possible and reducing the need for hospital inpatient care wherever feasible. The acute service at one of the District General Hospital provides assessment of functional need and implements interventions to enable patients to safely leave hospital.A small team of qualified and unqualified staff covers the 430 beds the District General Hospital. As a senior qualified team member, I am responsible for four busy surgical, neurological and cardiac wards. I am also responsible to the clinical development of junior and unqualified staff members. I review the length of time a referral is waiting to be seen, picking up referrals due to breach waiting targets as agreed by management. I generally hold a larger caseload than other team members and support my team with complex referrals and a high referral turn over. Description of the problemReferrals to the service are made primarily via ward nursing staff and other members of the multi-disciplinary team. Patient information is entered into a referral book and then non-qualified staff members collect the referral information twice daily. This generates a referral card with basic information relating to the patient’s reason for admission and general current health, which is submitted to a referral folder within the department. The qualified staff members use these referral cards to prioritise referrals. Inappropriate referrals to the acute Service are unfortunately a common occurrence.Patients’ are referred for assessment, which becomes a requirement prior to discharge. Any referral requires staff time, which has financial implications. A non-complex referral can take an average of 2 -4 hours to fully assess, complete the required paperwork and implement required recommendations. A complex referral can take a couple of days. An inappropriate referral can cause an unnecessary delayed discharge not only for the patient referred inappropriately, but also for other patients appropriately referred as often they must wait for the qualified to work with the inappropriate referral before they can be seen.This may result in a hospital bed being blocked; occupied by someone that could have been discharged rather than made to wait for an assessment. The rough average costing of a night’s stay in a NHS hospital bed is ?500. Analysis of the problem Consistent feedback from all therapists within the acute medical team indicated a flaw in the current referral system. Team members highlighted large numbers of referrals that did not meet the criteria for acute medical assessment and similarly large numbers of referrals made at inappropriate times. Following lengthy discussion at a team meeting, it was agreed that the current system was failing.The demand for assessment and interventions to plan for safe discharge from hospital is high. The indication of knowledge and understanding of the purpose of the assessment and intervention within the context of discharge planning is not so high. This was the consensus after reviewing the numbers of, reasons for and timing of referrals. Generally a referral is made by a qualified nurse sticking a patient information label onto a referral card and selecting a tick box option to indicate reason for referral. An estimation of the time this would take is 10 minutes.Based on an annual salary of a newly qualified staff nurse, this would equate to ?1. 80. An Assistant visits each ward twice daily, collecting the referral cards and completing information from the patient’s medical notes including reason for admission, social history and past medical history. This fully completed referra l is then placed into the referral folder which is located within the department. This part of the process will take up to 30 minutes per referral dependent on the complexity of the admission and medical history, if the medical notes can be located and if ward staff are to hand to discuss.Based on an annual salary of an experienced Assistant, this would equate to ?4. 40. For a referral to be made and information collected will cost approximately ?6. 20 (in wages. ) If a hospital bed costs approximately ?500 per night, and a patient is not discharged home to await an assessment, an inappropriate referral has then cost ?506. 20, which is a very large sum if the assessment was not required. An average initial assessment will take an hour, with another hour of paperwork.If a home visit or functional assessment is indicated, this may take up to three hours. If equipment is required, or referrals to other agencies indicated, this may take another couple of hours. Based on an annual salary of a mid-range senior qualified, the 7 hours would equate to ?105. To complete a full assessment and implement required interventions, a patient may require a further two nights in hospital i. e. ?1000. So, in total, ?6. 20 to complete an appropriate referral, ?105 to fully assess, ?1000 to implement interventions equals ?1111. 20.Once the problem of the impact inappropriate referrals have on delivering an effective and efficient acute service delivery, a focus group was set up to explore potential solutions. The aim was agreed – prevent unnecessary referrals to improve the effectiveness of the service, reduce delayed discharges and prevent bed blockages. Resolution of the problem Possible solutions were discussed as a team, which included management. Each potential solution was reviewed and realistic outcome potential considered. It was decided to target the referral process, to include the appropriateness and the timing of referrals made.The aim was to ensure only people i n need are referred and done so at an appropriate time. The chosen solutions were to educate referrers, facilitate morning handover a meeting with ward staff and therapists to discuss patients, create and cascade out referral flow-charts and to establish a clear criterion of those to refer and those who do not require assessment or interventions. The team evaluated each solution individually, reviewing the barriers and gains for each option and noted what would be required to implement each solution.Focus groups were recognised at the most cost-effective tool to progress solutions and a referral flow chart and appropriate/inappropriate referral criteria established. This was approved by the head and approved to role out onto the wards. There was of course resource implications, including clinical time spent away from assessments educating referrers. This reduced the scope for patients to be assessed by therapists. Similarly, Assistants spent the time they would usually collect refer ral information printing and laminating referral pathways/criteria and delivery them the wards.The most costly resource expenditure was a senior qualified attending a daily bed managers meeting, where delayed discharges could be highlighted and bed pressures discussed. Attendance to such meetings enabled our purpose and profile to be raised and the cost implications of frequent inappropriate referrals could be flagged. Other potential solutions were considered but not implemented primarily due to cost implications. For example, a triage system where a qualified would take all the referrals, attend relevant wards and review each referral on a 1:1 basis to establish it’s priority and appropriateness.This was deemed cost ineffective. Another potential solution was to create a referral duty desk and all referrals would need to be telephoned through during a set three hour time period. Though this would ensure all required information would be gathered, and priority/appropriatenes s could be established with the referrer straight away, it was not implemented. The department was unable to offer more than one therapist to operate the telephone for the entire hospital. Ward staff feedback was they were unable to commit to having time to make and discuss referrals within the duty desk operating hours.Similarly, it was agreed within the team that 3 hours a day out of clinical practice would be too cost effective and detrimental to managing the busy waiting list. The aim was agreed – prevent unnecessary referrals to improve the effectiveness of the service, reduce delayed discharges and prevent bed blockages. The solution was also agreed – a multi faceted approach to include establishing a referral pathway, referral criteria, establishing a morning ward handover, education for referrals and therapy attendance at bed managers meeting.Implementation and communication of the solution Action plan: Solutions identified and agreed. Action plan of how to, wh en to and who to lead on implementing each aspect of the solutions created. Referral pathway – myself to lead, completion within 2 week time frame for approval by service head. Once approved copies to be printed and laminated. Laminated pathways to be displayed on each ward, in nurse station area, in referral folders and in ward managers’ office. Referral criteria – focus group, completion within 2 week time frame for approval by service head.Criteria to be printed, laminated and to be displayed on each ward, in nurse station area, in referral folders and in ward managers’ office. Establishing a morning ward handover – ward allocated to lead, completion within two week time frame Education for referrers – myself to lead. PowerPoint presentation to be created within two week time frame for approval by service head. Education sessions to be arranged within two weeks following head approval. Attendance at bed managers meeting – senior to attend for immediate effect. Communication –Email sent to all ward managers and bed managers to inform them of referral Pilot. Information session offered for drop-in attendance for staff to openly discuss concerns and desired aim of planned changes. Meeting with Ward managers to explain full scope of Service, importance and impact of inappropriate referrals Feedback emails encouraged regarding referrers experiences of how the service altered if at all following the changes. Positive improvement monitoring – No official audit was completed during or immediately following the pilot. ConclusionThe problem highlighted was the impact of inappropriate referrals and inappropriately timed referrals on Service delivery in acute patient care. Solutions were identified and implemented over time. Although no formal audit was identified or carried out during this period to formalise outcomes and findings, staff feedback from all disciplines summarised positive change. The number of delayed discharges reduced, the amount of time spent with appropriate referrals increased and general team morale improved. Overall, the action plan to resolve the problem was successful.Ward staff approached therapy staff to discuss referrals, rather than simply making a referral without thought for appropriateness. The implementation of morning handover with nursing and therapy staff created time on a daily basis for such discussion, including addressing if a patient was ready to engage in assessment. No adjustment was made to the referral flowchart following its implementation. However, natural adjustments occurred with multi-disciplinary discussions on a daily basis. On reflection, methods evidence collection such as audit should have been carried out in order to formalise the effect of the change implemented.

English Essay We Are Virginia Tech - 1690 Words

â€Å"We Are Virginia Tech† Speaking is form of art that can either be a natural gift or a practiced talent. Much like there are several different ways a person can draw: cartooning, free hand, or realistic, there are many ways in which a person can speak. Nikki Giovanni’s speech â€Å"We Are Virginia Tech† makes people cry, rejoice, and move on. A speech is one form of art that can evoke these types of emotions from people. In Nikki Giovanni’s poem â€Å"We Are Virginia Tech,† which was spoken at a memorial ceremony for Virginia Tech shooting victims, she uses her tone and a repetition of words to make her speech very powerful. The tone of her voice is very distinct, she speaks with poise and confidence, while remaining remorseful but positive†¦show more content†¦People in the audience who lost close loved ones in this disaster may not think the other worldly tragedies Giovanni describes are of the same magnitude as this. For others though these images she gives may h elp them connect with the loss some are experiencing. Speeches can affect people in different ways, some speeches will inspire you, others will make you reflect on your own life, some will teach you a life lesson, but Nikki Giovanni’s poem was meant to bring together a group of disheartened people. Giovanni’s speech did not affect me as intensely as it did to the families of the victims who actually saw her give the speech. Similar to whether you are seeing a photo of a piece of artwork or seeing it in person, seeing or hearing a recording of a speech it will affect you differently. Sontag says, â€Å"real art has the capacity to make us nervous† (Sontag 759). This speech is meant to bring out the sadness, but also the hope for a better future that people are feeling. Preston Risser said, â€Å"her poem brought out the hurt people were feeling and brought awareness to the situation at hand.† As seen in the video people are either crying after she is fin ished, or standing up with a newfound inspiration to stand tall and put this tragedy in the past. The way a piece of art might make you feel does not have to be displayed by some physical expression, it can be an emotion that is kept inside. In relation to how NikkiShow MoreRelatedThe Editorial Came Out Of The Los Angeles Times986 Words   |  4 PagesAngeles Times. It was interesting magazine for an editorial supporting gun rights to come out of. It is traditionally a more democratic magazine and them having an anti-Gun Control editorial was a surprise. The editorial is a little older using the Virginia Tech shootings as the most recent incident in the United States. 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